The Prefrontal Cortex And Antisocial Behaviour Psychology Essay

The Prefrontal Cortex And Antisocial Behaviour Psychology Essay Todays society, where antisocial behaviour is seen in children and adults, seems to exhibit a greater need to understand its underlying causes. Ones ability to act in an appropriate manner in a given social context is quite unique to humans; along with the ability to reason and make conscious decisions. Therefore, it seems to suggest that such civilised behaviours are dictated by an area of the brain seen in only the most developed. Research into antisocial behaviour implicates the prefrontal cortex; an area of the frontal lobe involved in decision-making and the ability to inhibit undesirable social responses. The research to be discussed in this essay looks at how prefrontal cortex dysfunction affects judgement and how this, in turn, contributes to the decision to behave antisocially. History is littered with cases of individuals whose behaviour changes drastically as the result of brain damage, however, these only represent patients in which brain functioning develops normally. Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio (1999) presented the case of two individuals in which normal brain development was prevented by damage caused primarily to the prefrontal cortex before the age of sixteen months. This study involved a comparison between adult and early-onset patients to assess the differences caused by the repressed development of the prefrontal cortex. Findings show that the two different categories of patients were very similar in social impairments but the distinction can be seen in the fact that early-onset patients lacked the social and moral reasoning of the adults, hence suggesting that development of social and moral principles had been affected. This implies that the prefrontal cortex is involved in the ability to make socially acceptable and moral de cisions which are then applied in making appropriate behavioural responses. Much research in this area makes use of diagnosed Psychopathic individuals (condition characterised by extreme antisocial behaviour towards others). Yang and Raine (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of 43 cases of varying ranges of antisocial behaviour- including psychopaths. Not only do the findings support the involvement of the prefrontal cortex in antisocial behaviour- increased antisocial behaviour is linked to reduced function of several prefrontal regions- but they propose some localisation of antisocial aspects in specific sub-regions of the cortex. They hypothesised that activity reduction in areas such as the orbitofrontal region are affiliated with emotional impairments and decision-making deficits, whereas, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction is more associated with characteristic impulsivity. Furthermore, brain imaging has highlighted orbitofrontal involvement in the reliving of one particular emotion known to underlie behavioural decisions: guilt (Wagner, NDiaye, Ethofer and Vuilleumier, 2011). Yang and Raines (2009) theory seems to explain how prefrontal damage can account for a variety of behavioural aspects that fall under the umbrella term of antisocial. Psychopathy has also been linked to discrepancies in the process of moral judgement by way of amygdala and orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Blair, 2007). Blair (2007) theorises that the reduction in care-based morality seen in psychopaths can be explained in terms of dysfunction of the amygdala and ventromedial l prefrontal cortex as these are involved in learning and reinforcement; in that aversive reinforcement prevents a person making immoral decisions. However, dysfunction in those with psychopathic tendencies means that such forms of learning do not occur and so they become unable to make moral decisions: leading to immoral behaviours. Verification is provided by Marsh, Finger, Fowler, Jurkowitz, Schechter, Yu, Pine and Blair (2011) who conducted brain imaging studies on patients with psychopathic traits whilst getting them to participate in a moral task. Although, by their own admission, the moral task was fairly minor, the results show that participants had reduce d activity between the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala during task completion (Marsh et al, 2011). This seemingly supports Blair (2007) in linking deficiencies of the two brain regions to moral judgment and psychopathic behaviour. Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has further been linked to moral decision making in terms of beliefs about harmful intent behind certain behaviours. Young, Bechera, Tranel, Damasio, Hauser and Damasio (2010) conducted a study on patients with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in which they manipulated scenarios to depict varying degrees of harm: (intentional harm, deliberate-unsuccessful harm). They found that relative to healthy controls, participants judged accidental harms more severely than unsuccessful yet intentional harm. According to Young et al. (2010) participants came to this conclusion by neglecting negative behavioural intent and focusing only on the outcomes. Hence, it seems that damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, impairs an individuals ability to make moral decisions regarding behavioural intent. This has powerful implications: perhaps antisocial behaviour displayed in those with prefrontal dysfunction is born out of the ina bility to recognise the harmful intent behind their actions, especially if the outcome is something they perceive as desirable. In conclusion, the role of prefrontal cortex dysfunction in antisocial behaviour is corroborated in extensive research which suggests its involvement is not limited to one specific aspect of the behaviour, nor one particular brain sub-region. This appears to make the argument more comprehensive than if such complex behaviour was specified to one region alone. The prefrontal cortex seems to be involved in the motivation behind behaviours and the judgements that affect behavioural decisions. Therefore, dysfunction of the area leads to immoral decision making which causes the individuals to behave in ways that can be classed as antisocial (such as those behaviours shown by psychopaths). Particular involvement seems to be of the orbitofrontal region in influencing moral and emotional decisions into undesirable behavioural outcomes. Furthermore, connectional dysfunction of the area with other brain areas has been linked to learning processes involved in morality (Blair, 2007). This seems to explain the inability to learn what is considered morally right and wrong: shown in those with damage obtained in infancy (Anderson, Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio, 1999). Whatever its role, vast research support for prefrontal cortex dysfunction in antisocial behaviour somewhat validates its involvement and may question the extent to which an individual can be held accountable for such actions- which could have societal repercussions.

Level2 Equality Diversity

NCFE Level 2 Certificate in Equality and Diversity Unit 4: Living in Diverse Communities Assessment You should use this file to complete your Assessment. The first thing you need to do is save a copy of this document, either onto your computer or a disk Then work through your Assessment, remembering to save your work regularly When you’ve finished, print out a copy to keep for reference Then, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your completed Assessment to your tutor via your My Study area – make sure it is clearly marked with your name, the course title and the Unit and Assessment number. Name: Lisa Roe 1.Describe a range of appropriate investigative methods that can be used to explore diversity in a community. You can observe the community using several methods one being you could use observation sheets ,go in the internet use the local library, contact people with expert knowledge. You can use neighbourhood statistic websites that can give you a range of statistics in your local area. 2. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, describe the extent of diversity that exists within your community. You should illustrate your work with some actual data such as statistics or desktop research.Spoken languages ,There are currently 73 languages spoken in the Wigan Borough, according to English as an Additional Language statistics within schools. (Wigan Council Census, January 2010). The top languages currently being used by schools is Polish, Chinese, Arabic, Punjabi, French, Malayalam, Urdu, Slovak and Norwegian. 38 languages were requested Interpretation services within GP practices in 2008/09. The top languages currently being used by patients within GP practices are Kurdish, Slovak, Farsi, Mandarin, Russian, Arabic, French and Polish.There are currently 68 languages used in Wigan and Leigh College. Top languages spoken are Polish, Arabic, Chinese, Punjabi, Slovak, French, Urdu, Malayan, Russian, and Lithuanian most recent dat a we have on religion is from the 2001 Census, so very out-of- date. Wigan is a predominantly Christian borough with 87% classed as such. The next largest group is those describing themselves as having no religion, at 7%. There are less that 1% of people in the borough who describe themselves as either Muslim (0. 33%), Hindu (0. 17%), Buddhist (0. 09%), Jewish (0. 3%) or Sikh (0. 02%). However, the growing ethnic diversity that has been experienced in the borough over the last ten years is likely to have had an effect on the religious make-up also 3. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, describe the range of services and agencies that exist within your local community to support diversity. www. wlct. org Wigan Leisure and Culture Trust is committed to equality and diversity and in an ongoing process continues to develop and improve services to everyone in the community www. wigan. ov. uk for help with everything from housing to help looking for a job. Patie nt advice and liaison services Advice on the availability of, and access to, local health services www. walh. co. ukequality and diversity in employment 4. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, provide a wide range of examples (at least 20) of physical signs that show there is diversity within your community. Include examples relating to: Religion Ethnicity Age Disability Gender 5. Describe the types of inequality that could exist within a community.Report on your findings. 1,Political this may occur when certain groups are prevented from taking part in a process. 2, Inequality of outcome this is when people have variations in wealth and income 3 inequality of treatment this is were we have to treat people without bias, prejudice or special conditions applying to them 6. Describe the threats that exist to equality and diversity within the community, using examples of intolerance and extremism. when people are intolerant they tend to stereotype and label the groups / categories they do not like.They may behave in antisocial ways that undermine the quality of life of the people they do not like. This can worsen to the point where there is extremism. One of the main problems that results from intolerant behaviour is that it can cause the social groups being subjected to it to behave differently. They often respond in one of two ways: The people affected may withdraw and become more insular. They tend to stay with ‘their own social group’ and avoid outsiders. However, this withdrawal can be perceived by outsiders as being anti-social and this can have a negative effect on the way the minority group is labelled. hey stereotype people outside their group as being a threat against them. They may themselves become intolerant of the ‘outsiders’. This breaks down the healthy relationships that the social group has with others. These responses are understandable. If a person feels threatened it makes sense to keep close to people you feel safe with and keep away from potential threats. Unfortunately the result is that the behaviour of an intolerant minority can influence and negatively impact a whole community. the extremist is obviously an intolerant person who takes things to extremes.They go from disliking and being intolerant of a particular social group (on the grounds of things such as race, ethnicity, gender, disability or sexual preference) to taking actions that may cause those people harm. 7. Research the range of support services and networks that exist within the local community to support diversity and explain the specific roles they carry out and the users they support. This task should be completed for each of the following: Public sector organisations Wigan, Leigh & District Society for the Blind to help the blind people find out information and get help if needed. www. thebrick. org. kthey help homeless people www. embracewiganand leigh. org they are a Wigan based charity who help people with disabilities and their families that need support, advice and information. Charitable and voluntary organisations oxfam cancer research save the children Self-help groups AATo help people with drinking problems Alzheimers society-to help family to cope with loved ones who are suffering with alzhelmers. Lesbian and gay foundation providers of direct support and resources to lesbian gay and bisexual people Once you have completed this Assessment, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your work to your tutor for marking. Level2 Equality Diversity NCFE Level 2 Certificate in Equality and Diversity Unit 4: Living in Diverse Communities Assessment You should use this file to complete your Assessment. The first thing you need to do is save a copy of this document, either onto your computer or a disk Then work through your Assessment, remembering to save your work regularly When you’ve finished, print out a copy to keep for reference Then, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your completed Assessment to your tutor via your My Study area – make sure it is clearly marked with your name, the course title and the Unit and Assessment number. Name: Lisa Roe 1.Describe a range of appropriate investigative methods that can be used to explore diversity in a community. You can observe the community using several methods one being you could use observation sheets ,go in the internet use the local library, contact people with expert knowledge. You can use neighbourhood statistic websites that can give you a range of statistics in your local area. 2. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, describe the extent of diversity that exists within your community. You should illustrate your work with some actual data such as statistics or desktop research.Spoken languages ,There are currently 73 languages spoken in the Wigan Borough, according to English as an Additional Language statistics within schools. (Wigan Council Census, January 2010). The top languages currently being used by schools is Polish, Chinese, Arabic, Punjabi, French, Malayalam, Urdu, Slovak and Norwegian. 38 languages were requested Interpretation services within GP practices in 2008/09. The top languages currently being used by patients within GP practices are Kurdish, Slovak, Farsi, Mandarin, Russian, Arabic, French and Polish.There are currently 68 languages used in Wigan and Leigh College. Top languages spoken are Polish, Arabic, Chinese, Punjabi, Slovak, French, Urdu, Malayan, Russian, and Lithuanian most recent dat a we have on religion is from the 2001 Census, so very out-of- date. Wigan is a predominantly Christian borough with 87% classed as such. The next largest group is those describing themselves as having no religion, at 7%. There are less that 1% of people in the borough who describe themselves as either Muslim (0. 33%), Hindu (0. 17%), Buddhist (0. 09%), Jewish (0. 3%) or Sikh (0. 02%). However, the growing ethnic diversity that has been experienced in the borough over the last ten years is likely to have had an effect on the religious make-up also 3. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, describe the range of services and agencies that exist within your local community to support diversity. www. wlct. org Wigan Leisure and Culture Trust is committed to equality and diversity and in an ongoing process continues to develop and improve services to everyone in the community www. wigan. ov. uk for help with everything from housing to help looking for a job. Patie nt advice and liaison services Advice on the availability of, and access to, local health services www. walh. co. ukequality and diversity in employment 4. Using one (or more) of the methods you outlined in Question 1, provide a wide range of examples (at least 20) of physical signs that show there is diversity within your community. Include examples relating to: Religion Ethnicity Age Disability Gender 5. Describe the types of inequality that could exist within a community.Report on your findings. 1,Political this may occur when certain groups are prevented from taking part in a process. 2, Inequality of outcome this is when people have variations in wealth and income 3 inequality of treatment this is were we have to treat people without bias, prejudice or special conditions applying to them 6. Describe the threats that exist to equality and diversity within the community, using examples of intolerance and extremism. when people are intolerant they tend to stereotype and label the groups / categories they do not like.They may behave in antisocial ways that undermine the quality of life of the people they do not like. This can worsen to the point where there is extremism. One of the main problems that results from intolerant behaviour is that it can cause the social groups being subjected to it to behave differently. They often respond in one of two ways: The people affected may withdraw and become more insular. They tend to stay with ‘their own social group’ and avoid outsiders. However, this withdrawal can be perceived by outsiders as being anti-social and this can have a negative effect on the way the minority group is labelled. hey stereotype people outside their group as being a threat against them. They may themselves become intolerant of the ‘outsiders’. This breaks down the healthy relationships that the social group has with others. These responses are understandable. If a person feels threatened it makes sense to keep close to people you feel safe with and keep away from potential threats. Unfortunately the result is that the behaviour of an intolerant minority can influence and negatively impact a whole community. the extremist is obviously an intolerant person who takes things to extremes.They go from disliking and being intolerant of a particular social group (on the grounds of things such as race, ethnicity, gender, disability or sexual preference) to taking actions that may cause those people harm. 7. Research the range of support services and networks that exist within the local community to support diversity and explain the specific roles they carry out and the users they support. This task should be completed for each of the following: Public sector organisations Wigan, Leigh & District Society for the Blind to help the blind people find out information and get help if needed. www. thebrick. org. kthey help homeless people www. embracewiganand leigh. org they are a Wigan based charity who help people with disabilities and their families that need support, advice and information. Charitable and voluntary organisations oxfam cancer research save the children Self-help groups AATo help people with drinking problems Alzheimers society-to help family to cope with loved ones who are suffering with alzhelmers. Lesbian and gay foundation providers of direct support and resources to lesbian gay and bisexual people Once you have completed this Assessment, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your work to your tutor for marking.

Monkeys and how we judge mental illness Essay

In the movie 12 Monkeys there features a virus which was deliberately released in 1996 and killed more than five billion people. The survivors seek refuge into the underground. The refugees send volunteers to bring insect specimens from the universe to test for the virus presence. One of the sent prisoners is James Cole. He is sent for a mission into the past to collect information about the virus. He arrives in Baltimore in 1990, instead of 1996. Cole begins to recall the past events as if he was in a dream. For instance, he recalls an event when he witnessed a man killed at the airport while he was a child. Cole seems to have mental problem. That is the theme of the movie (Lynette, 3). In the movie, the issue of mental illness is brought out vividly. The definition of mental illness in regard to the social norms and beliefs is brought out clearly. Also, the Cole’s experience and how it relates to Plato’s allegory of the cave is highlighted. In this film, mental illness is featured several times. For instance, Jose mentions that the so called volunteers are said to go mad. This presents a clear case of mental illness in the movie. We also notice Cole getting locked up in the mental institution with other lunatics. That shows that there were many other lunatics present. Goines is definitely crazy or schizoid because of his hallucinating and grandiosity nature. Dr. Railly, the psychiatrist alludes that maybe the whole world may be insane. We really do not understand whether Cole was really from the future or he was ‘mentally divergent’. We notice Cole questioning his mental capabilities when he asks himself if it could not be great if he was crazy. Simultaneously, the Dr. is convinced that he is from the figure of which we know that this cannot be right (Lynette, 8). If he was really sane and from the furfure, then how can one explain the voice that he hears, the one he calls bum calling him Bob? What about th e changing guard faces? Again, what about the fact that he is never seen coming or leaving and his memory lapses? We really cannot know the physical divergence he claims to have because one cannot explain his foreknowledge about the boy in the well. It is also to explain his appearances in a World War One photo and the bullet in his leg. In short, this movie seems to be implying that we may not be mentally ill or weirder than the world we live. Relative to the social beliefs and norms, mental illness or abnormality can be seen as not being an exact process as it tends to focus on different individuals with different lines of thinking. This relies on different situations, behaviors and context to which the measure is applied (Weinberger, 2001). In defining abnormality, people from different societies and countries have varied ideas. Each and every culture has its own concepts of what it considers to be normal or abnormal. This can make us conclude that what is considered abnormal in one society is not the same in other societies. So, there is no society which is more superior to the other in their perception of mental illness or one society has got many mental disorders than the other (American Psychiatric Association. 2000). If we look at the deviation from the norms, something or somebody can be considered abnormal if he or she does not conform to what could be considered statistically normal. Those who focus on this explanation consider specific aspects such as the intelligence quotient (IQ), the personal traits and their distribution. Asserting that a person is abnormal in this aspect typically means that they deviate from the numeric average of a specific trait and behavior patterns. The other mostly applied aspect in examining the mental illness of people is the deviation from the social norms. Naturally, some behaviors are considered unaccepted in the society, but they can still be expected to be applied in certain situations. Majority of people know how to adjust and come along with these changes (Weinberger, 2001). The ones that contradict what is socially normal are taken as abnormal or mentally ill to the extreme. Also, a person is considered abnormal if he/she is not functioning correctly in that he or she may lack a full range of emotion and feelings and, therefore, his life is considered abnormal. Such people can only participate in a limited range of functioning lifestyle (American Psychiatric Association. 2000). Distress can also be used to gauge the mental illness and capability of people as it could be an underlying mental problem. Another aspect of the social norms definition of mental illness is the person’s association with others. If a person’s relationship with others causes them discomfort, then, the approach of the person may lead to the description of abnormality in the context of that relationship. The Cole’s experiences relate to the Plato’s’ allegatory of the cave’ with respect to allegations that the real world may not be what our senses reveal. In relation to the Cole’s experience, we see him moving from one world of the past to the furfure and vice versa. In real this could only be a dream or mere imaginations. In this case, Cole’s experiences could be reflecting Plato’s thoughts or allegations. In his Dialogue with Glaucon, we are not sure of the cave which he was referring to. It could either be the underground that the people had escaped to after the virus struck the universe or the prison where Cole was imprisoned. Cole imagines that the prisoners could think that the sounds they had heard were really coming from the shadows. Surprisingly, that imagination coincides with his seeing the changing face of the guard and that of omnipresence. His concepts on the shadows could reflect Cole’s switching from one world to another. Was what he saw from the 1990 world true or could it be his experience from the 1996 and 2035? Which was the truer experience? On the last part of their discussion with Glaucon, he tells him that they, meaning the government, cannot show any gratitude for the culture which they have never received. This could be reflecting the 12 monkeys who had released the virus that almost eliminated the human race according to the film. He said that with education on how to tackle issues, one will be able to defeat these ill minded people. That notion reflects Cole’s endeavors. References Roger Ebert (1996-01-05). â€Å"12 Monkeys†. Chicago Sun-TimesLynette Rice (August 26, 2013). † 12 monkeys pilot†. Entertainment Weekly James Berardinelli. â€Å"Twelve Monkeys†. Reviews Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences Education, National Research Council. 2000. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Weinberger, D., Torrey, E.F., and Berman, K. 2001. Schizophrenia PET scans. Retrieved July 13, 2008 American Psychiatric Association. 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition The Allegory of the Cave http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/allegory.html Source document

Timeline and Definition of the Nazca Civilization

The Nasca (sometimes spelled Nazca outside of archaeological texts) Early Intermediate Period [EIP] civilization was located in the Nazca region as defined by the Ica and Grande river drainages, on the southern coast of Peru between about AD 1-750. Chronology The following dates are from Unkel et al. (2012). All dates are calibrated radiocarbon dates: Late Nasca AD 440-640Middle Nasca AD 300-440Early Nasca AD 80-300Initial Nasca  260 BC-80 ADLate Paracas 300 BC-100 Scholars perceive the Nasca as arising out of the Paracas culture, rather than an in-migration of people from another place. The early Nasca culture arose as a loosely-affiliated group of rural villages with self-sufficient subsistence based on corn agriculture. The villages had a distinctive art style, specific rituals, and burial customs. Cahuachi, an important Nasca ceremonial center, was built and became a focus of feasting and ceremonial activities. The Middle Nasca period saw many changes, perhaps brought about by a long drought. Settlement patterns and subsistence and irrigation practices changed, and Cahuachi became less important. By this time, the Nasca was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms--not with a centralized government, but rather autonomous settlements that regularly convened for rituals. By the Late Nasca period, increasing social complexity and warfare led to the movement of people away from the rural farmsteads and into a few larger sites. Culture The Nasca are known for their elaborate textile and ceramic art, including an elaborate mortuary ritual associated with warfare and the taking of trophy heads. More than 150 trophy heads have been identified at Nazca sites, and there are examples of burials of headless bodies, and burials of grave goods without human remains. Gold metallurgy in early Nasca times is comparable to Paracas culture: consisting of low-tech cold-hammered art objects. Some slag sites from copper smelting and other evidence suggest that by the late phase (Late Intermediate Period) the Nasca increased their technological knowledge. The Nasca region is an arid one, and the Nazca developed a sophisticated irrigation system that aided in their survival for so many centuries. The Nazca Lines The Nasca are probably best known to the public for the Nazca Lines, geometric lines and animal shapes etched into the desert plain by the members of this civilization. The Nasca lines were first intensively studied by the German mathematician Maria Reiche and have been the focus of many silly theories concerning alien landing places. Recent investigations at Nasca include the Project Nasca/Palpa, a photogrammetric study from the Deutschen Archà ¤ologischen Instituts and Instituto Andino de Estudios Arqueolà ³gicos, using modern GIS methods to record the geoglyphs digitally.​ Sources Conlee, Christina A. 2007 Decapitation and Rebirth: A Headless Burial from Nasca, Peru.  Current Anthropology  48(3):438-453.Eerkens, Jelmer W., et al. 2008  Obsidian hydration dating on the South Coast of Peru.  Journal of Archaeological Science  35(8):2231-2239.Kellner, Corina M. and Margaret J. Schoeninger 2008  Waris imperial influence on local Nasca diet: The stable isotope evidence.  Journal of Anthropological Archaeology  27(2):226-243.Knudson, Kelly J., et al. In press  The geographic origins of Nasca trophy heads using strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope data.  Journal of Anthropological Archaeology  in press.Lambers, Karsten, et al. 2007  Combining photogrammetry and laser scanning for the recording and modelling of the Late Intermediate Period site of Pinchango Alto, Palpa, Peru.  Journal of Archaeological Science  34:1702-1712.Rink, W. J. and J.  Bartoll  2005  Dating the geometric Nasca lines in the Peruvian desert.  Antiquity  79( 304):390-401.Silverman, Helaine and David Browne 1991  New evidence for the date of the Nazca lines.  Antiquity  65:208-220.Van Gijseghem, Hendrik and Kevin J. Vaughn 2008  Regional integration and the built environment in middle-range societies: Paracas and early Nasca houses and communities.  Journal of Anthropological Archaeology  27(1):111-130.Vaughn, Kevin J. 2004  Households, Crafts, and Feasting in the Ancient Andes: The Village Context of Early Nasca Craft Consumption.  Latin  American Antiquity  15(1):61-88.Vaughn, Kevin J., Christina A. Conlee, Hector Neff, and Katharina Schreiber 2006  Ceramic production in ancient Nasca: provenance analysis of pottery from the Early Nasca and  Tiza  cultures through INAA.  Journal of Archaeological Science  33:681-689.Vaughn, Kevin J. and Hendrik Van Gijseghem 2007  A compositional perspective on the origins of the â€Å"Nasca cult† at Cahuachi.  Journal of Archaeological Science  34(5):814-822.